Patriot Act Pro

Pro Patriot Act There are many advantages for expanding governmental surveillance and investigative powers. For instance, there’s the possibility of gaining invaluable information for future attacks, and also the potential for targeting terrorists who may be responsible for such attacks. According to the American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU), â€Å"The FBI does not have to demonstrate probable cause, only declare it has â€Å"reasonable grounds† to suspect that library records may be relevant to an investigation. Supporters of such extreme measures believe in national security over privacy. They would much rather see a terrorist behind bars than protect their personalphone calls or bank accounts. Another claim is that the government wouldn’t investigate ordinary citizens, meaning that the law is exclusive to suspected criminals. Question: Do these claims qualify as being morally right? From the supporter’s perspective the answer is yes. The governmentâ₠¬â„¢s involvement is warranted in order to establish justice and ensure domestic tranquility (Department of Justice).The Act also provides increased funding for victims of terrorist attacks and their families, as well as for the rebuilding of business and infrastructure that are damaged by terrorism. The Patriot Act is divided into 10 separate sections known as â€Å"titles. † Each title contains numerous Sections that further clarify the provisions of the title. The emphasis was on being sure that should another attack be planned, the government would have the power to prevent it from being completed.Section 213 Sneak and Peek Warrants: this provision allows â€Å"sneak and peek† search warrants, which grants authorities authorization to search a home or business without immediately notifying the target of a probe. Investigators still have to explain why they want to delay the search notification and must eventually notify the target about the search (Abramson and God oy 2006). Under this provision the FBI is permitted to enter a home or an office in the absence of the occupant.During this secret investigation, FBI agents are authorized to take photographs, examine computer hard drives, and install a device known as the Magic Lantern. Once installed, the Magic Lantern, records all computer activity not just those transmitted over the internet. > This means FBI is not just searching anyone without a search warrant, the act states that they can search suspects of terror if and only if they have a reasonable reason and it is a terror, different from a crime.

Computer Games Essay

Farmville, DotA, Cafà © World, City Ville, Plants Vs. Zombies are just among of the few computer games that are in demand not only among the youth today but also to some adults. These computer games surely bring us entertainment and fun but is that really what’s into it? Have you ever thought of what are the effects of these games to our minds and attitudes? Computer games conquer the minds of our youth today. Through these games, we are able to make friends all over the world. These games could also help our minds because while playing we think of different strategies to win. These helps keep our minds off of the things we don’t want to think about. But are these benefits worth it, when once you get addicted to these you might not think of doing more important things? For me, computer games are fine but once you put all of your time playing these then you might want to think of controlling yourself. Why? Because it might divert your attention from your duties and responsibilities. As a youth and a student, I think that we should focus on our studies more because our studies would make a great impact on our future. If you study more, then you’ll have a greater chance of having a bright future. I am not saying that you should not play such computer games. You could play but make sure that you could control yourself, manage your time, and keep it in moderate. Remember, staying in front of the computer for so long could damage your eyes and your health because of radiation. Some even died because of addiction to the game DotA. I’m not a fan of this game because of its characters that seem to promote the devil. Computer games bring us enjoyment and amusement but we should all think of its effects to us and what it really teaches us before we get indulged on playing such. I don’t have a thing against the gamers but it is good to keep things in moderate. Not only in computer gaming but in other things as well.

How to Set a (Realistic) Target SAT Score

When you’re preparing to take the SAT for the first—or maybe second or third—time, it can be difficult to know where to start. Before you even start studying, it’s important to set a goal for your SAT scores—while staying realistic, of course. Not sure where to begin? Here’s your guide to setting a (realistic) target SAT score. While you want to aim as high as possible, it’s important to keep yourself in check . Understand where you’re starting in order to figure out how much you can improve. Take a formative assessment to gauge your starting point. This type of practice test will give you a read on what skills you have now and which ones you still need to learn and practice. Learn more about the importance of this test in What Is a Formative Assessment and Why Should I Use One to Study? . Remember that your initial score is likely to go up as you study and prepare for the SAT. Use the formative assessment to consider which studying strategies are best for you. For instance, if you’re strong in reading but weaker in geometry problems and formulas, you may want to implement a â€Å"formula of the day† to memorize. First and foremost, you should be looking for colleges that are the right fit —not just in terms of rankings, prestige, and difficulty of admission, but those that align with your values and interests. While you’re reviewing colleges , make note of the average test scores at the schools that interest you. You can usually find the middle 50% SAT score range, meaning the range from the 25th percentile and to the 75th percentile of the most recent freshman class. You should aim to fall at least in the middle of this range. If you’re closer to the 25th percentile, it’s not a deal breaker, but it does make the school more of a reach. Our students see an average increase of 250 points on their SAT scores. Many scholarships base awards on SAT scores among other factors. Identify these scholarships early on, so you know what you need to do and what scores you need to earn to achieve them. Winning these scholarships can help you with college costs. Learn more in How Your SAT Scores Can Help You Earn Scholarships and Getting a Head Start on Your Scholarship Search . Use your PSAT score as a starting point, as well as previous SAT scores. While you will improve with studying, as well as simply learning more information in school, your PSAT can give you a rough starting pointing. Learn more about interpreting your PSAT scores in What Does My PSAT Score Mean? . Use information such as practice tests, your PSAT, and the average scores of the colleges on your list to set a realistic target score for the SAT. You should also factor in and consider how much time you’ll have for prepping and studying. Make a plan and stick to it. Then you can start working on achieving your goals. For more advice on preparing for the SAT, read: Looking for some more help for acing the SAT? The SAT Tutoring Program will help you achieve top scores on your test. We’ll pair you with two private tutors, one for English and writing, and one for math and science. All of our tutors have scored in the 99th percentile on the section they are teaching and are chosen based on teaching skills and ability to relate to their students. How to Write the University of Pittsburgh Essays 2018-2019 The University of Pittsburgh (colloquially known as Pitt) is a large research university established in 1787. Located in the industrial city of Pittsburgh, Pitt is home to 17 schools and over 19,000 undergraduate students. With an acceptance rate of 60%, Pitt was ranked 26th out of all public universities in the United States by U.S. News & World Report in 2018. The university has a thriving academic community, over 350 student clubs and organizations, and is known for its positive campus atmosphere; in 2010, it was rated as having one of the top 10 happiest student bodies in the country. The University of Pittsburgh strongly encourages applicants to write three short essays, granting potential students a great opportunity to showcase multiple facets of their personality, experiences, and interests. Read on for tips to help you master these essays and boost your chances of acceptance into one of the happiest and highest-ranking public schools in the country! This prompt provides you the space to demonstrate your   passions ,   initiative , and   desire to help others . Whether the impact you have made is large or small, the essay should show how you possess each of these qualities. Some good example topics for this essay: While the first example is on a â€Å"macro† scale, the second, more â€Å"micro† example can be equally as powerful if told well. If you decide to go with a smaller-scale impact, make sure it is written as a   story ; use descriptive details that really make the reader feel as though they were also there. While you should be descriptive and   show instead of tell   no matter what you are writing about (see guide to the prompt below for more details on showing vs. telling), it is especially important when writing about an experience that could seem trivial if it is not well-described. Be sure to also illustrate the impact; for instance, for the second example above, the writer could incorporate dialogue between herself and the student when he expresses his gratitude for her reaching out to him. Submit your essay and we’ll get back to you with helpful edits. As briefly discussed in our guide   How to Write the Common Application Essays 2018-2019 , the best response to this question should demonstrate how the intersection of your personality, interests, skills, and analytical-thinking abilities creates a distinctive combination — one that would allow you to contribute in an idiosyncratic way to the college to which you are applying. Taking it one step farther, UPitt is also looking for your ability to reflect. What evidence do you have of your uniqueness? What experiences can you point to that showcase your individuality? You will likely be doing some storytelling here, so it’s extremely important to   show and not tell. Here’s an example of the difference between the two: Note that the â€Å"showing† example also   avoids using any overused adages or clichà ©s , as such sayings can diminish the strength of the experience or emotion you are trying to convey. For example, when explaining the difficulties that come with growing up, writing â€Å"the inevitable blemishes of adolescence† is more distinct and illustrative than saying something like â€Å"the rollercoaster that is high school.† For some of you, this essay will be easy to start – maybe you’ve got an odd family tradition, an uncommon identity, a niche hobby, or even a peculiar birthmark that you could write about. In that case, be sure to point to specific experiences; you could focus on just one moment and tell the story with rich detail, or skillfully connect a few experiences together into one cohesive narrative. The key is to demonstrate your uniqueness through real-life examples and show how this uniqueness will translate into helping you excel at UPitt. But what if you don’t have some extraordinarily special aspect of life to point to? Don’t worry – most of the world doesn’t. The key is to remember that you are still unique! Your specific life experiences, background, personality, interests, and a million other things form a special combination that really cannot be found in anyone else. Try writing out all of your interests, skills, and passions, and then lift out a few from the list. Next, think about how these things come together and make you special. Are there any experiences that show how you, having your distinctive mixture of these separate identities or interests or abilities, were able to meet a challenge, relate to a stranger, help a peer, or learn something new about yourself? Really dig deeply into what you believe is truly unique about you, weave a story that features an experience or two demonstrating that uniqueness, and then show how this will help you contribute something distinctive to UPitt that nobody else can. With this prompt, UPitt wants to see your creativity and problem-solving skills. In other words, you should show the admissions office how you think . The key is to think small when answering this question: what’s a problem you see, and how would you fix it? We suggest you stay away from big national or global issues like â€Å"zero hunger† or â€Å"world poverty.† However, you may be able to concentrate on smaller, more specific issues within these broad zones, and most likely, the problem you’re interested in solving will be somehow related to family or interests or specific life experiences. (Bonus points if you can combine multiple areas of specialty together, drawing on your skills and experiences from two or more different academic or extracurricular areas!) The key takeaway here is that this prompt does not require a well-tested research project that’s been presented at multiple conferences — just pick any problem you see in your daily life and come up with a creative solution for it! As a word of caution, the only constraint is the word limit. While you have 750 words, the UPitt admissions office likely prefers the 200 to 300 range that they’ve suggested. In your answer, you should aim to have a brief background of what inspired your idea, an explanation of your idea, and the potential impact you’d like to see it cause. If you present something that requires a great deal of highly technical explanations, try your best to simplify it down so that any person walking down the street can understand your proposal. And worse comes to worst, pick something else! Remember: your actual product, process, business, or organization doesn’t matter so much as your inspiration and process – the story of your creativity, problem-solving, and compassion. Want help on your Pitt application or essays? Learn about our   College Apps Program. Want us to quickly edit your college essay? Submit it to our   Rapid Review program , and we’ll get it back to you quickly with comments from our expert team.

Components of a Job Description for Fundraising Assignment

Components of a Job Description for Fundraising - Assignment Example Similar to every job position fundraisers also perform their best when they actually know the expectations of their recruiters and the overall purpose of fundraising (Tempel, 2011). Since the components of a job description briefly address the job requirements, therefore, it is important to consider them when hiring a fundraiser. Developing a job description is actually the process of putting candidate selection criteria in writing. Here, it is important to note that job description not only summarizes the responsibilities and duties of the selected candidate rather it also mentions the aptitude and skills necessary to perform the job, for instance, training requirements, education, motivation and experience. All these elements actually help in recruiting the right person for the job (Stone, 2003). 1. Title of the Job: The job position is introduced in this section with a brief discussion about company’s background and its products/services. The job title is developed considering all the job requirements, expectations and responsibilities. Although the title is short but its description may have two or three sentences. It plays an important role in catching reader’s attention while inviting him to read a further description. 2. Statement of Objectives: Aims and objectives related to the job position should be mentioned clearly so that candidates can easily evaluate them according to their career goals. For instance, if the job description is about marketing position then objectives must refer to the customer needs and the company’s strategies to address them. On the other hand, if the job description is prepared for a non-profit organization then the objectives to meet the social needs should be mentioned here. 3. Major Responsibilities: These can be divided into two parts i.e. general responsibilities and the major tasks. For instance, a marketer’s foremost responsibility is to prepare marketing strategies but his general responsibility includes monitoring the ongoing marketing campaigns, feedback reports, presentations etc.  

Patient Care Plan Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2750 words

Patient Care Plan - Essay Example He has been on hemodialysis 3 times a week. The patient was diagnosed to have ESRF one year ago. He has history of hypertension for 25 years and history of type-2 diabetes mellitus for 22 years. Other than these, the patient is also a known case of ischemic heart disease diagnosed 12 years ago and for which he underwent GAGs in 1999. He also has mild Parkinsons disease, diagnosed 6 years ago. he suffers from dementia too. There is history of recurrent falls, but with no eventful fall so far. He has a pressure ulcer on his right toe. Alison is irregular with his medication and follow-up. Despite appropriate education on dialysis, he refused the treatment initially. The patient is not allergic to any known medication. He lives with his wife and requires assistance for activities of daily living. There is history of episodic fecal and urinary incontinence which are managed by his wife. In this report, the pathophysiology, clinical interventions, medications, diagnostic tests and nursing care plan will be discussed with reference to the clinical condition of the patient. Examination: On admission to the hospital, Alison appeared conscious, alert and oriented to time, place and person. His Jugular Venous Pressure was not elevated. His temperature was high (35.3 deg.C), blood pressure was slightly on the lower side (120/60mmHg), respiratory rate was very high (78 per minute) and oxygen saturation in room air was 96 percent (normal limits). Examination of the cardiac region revealed ejection systolic murmur. Auscultation of the chest revealed basal crackles in the lower part of the lungs with reduced breath sounds in the right base. Abdominal examination and examination of central nervous system were unremarkable except for few tremors due to Parkinsonism. Alison has a permcath in situ for dialysis. He has a pressure ulcer on his right big toe. Diagnosis: Known patient of end-stage renal disease secondary to type-2 diabetes mellitus and hypertension

Read a case and reflect on it Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Read a case and reflect on it - Research Paper Example The court did not find any of the parties enjoined in the case liable for the events that occurred. More so, the appellate court affirmed the verdict of the lower court; the court maintained that the lower court was right to vindicate the bar from taking responsibility of the drunk driver’s actions. According to the appellate court, the trial court did not err in withholding that there is no coverage under the Commercial General Liability section in Mid-Continents policies. It also upheld the lower court’s ruling that Lucky’s did not in any way endanger the life of the driver, the victim, or its employees; hence Lucky’s Grille & Billiards had no obligation to cater for the mover’s claims. The court ruled that Lucky’s Grille & Billiards’ insurer, Mid-Continent Insurance Company, did not have to foot the plaintiff’s bills because he complainant failed to put Lucky’s in charge of the situation. Despite the fact that the accident occurred in the bar’s packing lot, there is no evidence linking the bar to the accident. The appellant’s claims that Doty left the bar intoxicated, and hence unfit to drive, could not be proven since employees at Lucky’s could not confirm the same. The fact that the bar could not be linked to the incident means that its insurer was also not party to the claims. In addition, even if the plaintiff proved that the bar was responsible, Mid-Continent would be absolved of any claims since its insurance policies do not cater for customers after leaving the bar. The courts were, therefore, right in their

Panera Bread Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Panera Bread - Essay Example The company main competitive advantage is its ambiance that serves an escape from the daily hustle. Based on the SWOT analysis on Panera Bread, its brand image is strong in the US. By focusing on its competitive advantage, the company has maintained a strong customer loyalty due to its appealing ambiance. Panera Bread core competency is its artisan foods considered the best by its loyal customers. The primary components of Panera Bread value chain include: customer service, operating performance, and inbound logistics. The inbound logistics is more crucial as it acts as a product differentiation mechanism (Srinivasan, 2006). The management should reconsider its strategic measure of refranchising its 73 stores and its attempt to augment its share buyback. The underlying reason is that this will increase the company debt level and thus lowering its future profitability. Panera Bread should instead focus on other effective measures of competing against its rivals such as Starbucks. For Panera Bread to strengthen its competitive position in the global food industry, it should focus on promoting its organic food (Gamble, & Thompson 2012). As earlier mentioned, most people are shifting their consumption pattern to healthy organic foods as they become more conscious of their health. Therefore, this will help strengthen the company competitiveness and its business

Irish Law Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Irish Law - Case Study Example 3. Did the District Court err in not awarding compensation to the appellant for the injuries suffered by him that turned him in to a paraplegic STATEMENT OF THE FACTS James Naughton lost a significant amount of money at the racetrack seeking solace he went to powers pub were he consumed pints of larger and five double vodkas and redbull. The pub landlord knew him and offered him a lift home he refused (no attempt was made to dissuade him) he then walked the mile to were his car was located. He then drove off in search of more beer he was spotted driving erratically by several pedestrians and he then went to superMacs were he consumed a mighty mac meal. He then drove of to nellanys pub and parked his car directly in front of the premises he was served one beer but was refused anymore frustrated he drove 15 miles were he knew there was more liquor he was driving a short distance were he crashed into a wall his spinal cord was severed and he was rendered a paraplegic as a result of the crash He filed a court action alleging both pubs owed him a duty of care because he was allowed to drive when drunk and was served alcohol when drunk. The second pub Nellanys agreed to a confidential settlement, which cannot be stipulated for legal reasons. The actions against the first pub powers was dismissed on grounds that no legal authority would extend such a duty on publicans. ARGUMENT 1. Negligence has two meanings in law of torts i.e. Negligence as a mode of committing certain torts, e.g., negligently or carelessly committing trespass, nuisance or defamation. In this context it denotes the mental element, and Negligence is also considered as a separate tort. It means a conduct... He filed a court action alleging both pubs owed him a duty of care because he was allowed to drive when drunk and was served alcohol when drunk. The second pub Nellanys agreed to a confidential settlement, which cannot be stipulated for legal reasons. The actions against the first pub powers was dismissed on grounds that no legal authority would extend such a duty on publicans. 1. Negligence has two meanings in law of torts i.e. Negligence as a mode of committing certain torts, e.g., negligently or carelessly committing trespass, nuisance or defamation. In this context it denotes the mental element, and Negligence is also considered as a separate tort. It means a conduct which creates a risk of causing damage, rather than a state of mind. The House of Lords in 'Donoghue v. Stevenson'(1932) A.C. 562 treats negligence, where there is a duty to take care, as specific tort in itself, and not simply as an element is some more complex relationship or in some specialized breach of duty 'Grant v. Australian Knitting Mills(1936)A.C.85'. According to 'Heaven v. Pender' (1883) 11 Q.B.D.

Identity Theft Privacy Matrix Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Identity Theft Privacy Matrix - Research Paper Example In addition, e-commerce providers also face the risk of losing information they acquire from customer to threats that may breach their information systems. With many companies have fewer strategies to combat identity theft, against a backdrop of continued collection of personally identifying information, there is need to develop effective weapons to combat identity theft. Laws, regulations, and policies are the most effective weapons. The issue of identity theft presents ethical challenges that continue to challenge the success of e-commerce industry. While the industry has transformed commerce through practices that do not require face-to-face interactions, the danger of consumers losing their personally identifying information has far reaching consequences that could erode gains in privacy protection. Notably, the existing challenge of identity theft has created many concerns about the loss of personally identifying data and its impact on stakeholders involved in the e-commerce ind ustry (Camp, 2007). From the privacy matrix in this paper, it would be vital to note that identify theft has created varying influence on various elements that define the e-commerce industry. ... The e-commerce environment has brought together various organizations and entities that co-exist and have various forms of interaction. With many players working interacting in the electronic environment, there are concerted efforts to develop strategies that help reduce the challenge of identity theft. More specifically, there is a need to strike a balance between choosing strategies that enhance protection of personal identity while creating less burden on e-commerce systems. With the e-commerce built on a system that relies on personally identifying information, enhancing safety of personally identifying information has never been this important. The privacy matrix in the paper outlines several channels where identify theft can occur within the e-commerce industry. E-threats can compromise personally identifying information when consumers visit the e-commerce websites of their choice. During such visits, the consumers can provide website with information such as phone numbers, pas swords, credit card numbers, and in some cases their social security numbers. This information is critical for various e-commerce processes, but e-threats can capture them. At the front door, organizations that collect this information could be at risk of front door e-threats. These e-threats may include spyware, phishing and active or passive collection of personally identifying information. With regard to these threats, the use of laws and policies are essential in combating the loss of information at this point (Roberson, 2008). With consumers being at risk of losing information when these e-threats strike, laws could be effective in mandating the companies provide information about the security of user data to enable consumers take appropriate action about their

An integrated critique of kozols and dawkins Essay Example for Free

An integrated critique of kozols and dawkins Essay AN INTEGRATED CRITIQUE OF KOZOL’S AND DAWKIN INTRODUCTION Richard Dawkins was born on March 26, in 1941. He is an ethnologist, an evolutionarily biologists and a popular writer in science. He also holds the Simonyi Chair, which is designed to promote the understanding of science to public at Oxford University. The first time Dawkins come into the limelight and became popular was after writing his book ‘The Selfish Gene’ in 1976. This book introduced the term ‘meme’ and consequently helped discover memetics fields. It also made ‘gene-centered view of evolution’ popular. Around 1982, he made significant contributions toward evolution science. THE SELFISH GENE BY RICHARD DAWKINS Richard Dawkin’s ‘The selfish Gene’ was a very popular reading and to some extent controversial on evolution. The book elaborates and goes deeper to discuss more about the theory of William’s first ever book to write ‘Adaptation and Natural Selection’. The theory discussed on this book is principal to William’s book. Richard introduced, ‘Selfish Gene’ to provoke and express his views on gene’s evolution. This view states that evolution acts on genes and when we select some organisms or a population, this selection is normally based on the type of genes. According to his book, an organism must evolve since it is the only way of maximizing its ‘inclusive fitness’, which refers to the total number of the genes which are transmitted globally, rather than the genes passed on by a particular individual. Consequently, a population tends to learn towards ‘Evolutionarily Stable Strategy’. (Richard, 1990) This ‘selfish gene’ came up with the term ‘meme’. ‘Meme refers to a single unit of human’s culture evolution which is analogous to genes. It suggests that this is a ‘selfish’ replication of human genes, and it can affect the culture of human in a totally difference sense. There is no doubt that ‘memetics’ evoked a discussion of meme since he published his book. ‘Meme’ is cultural information units, which can be transferred from one mind to another. Examples of memes are tunes, clothes fashion, catch phrases, pot making or building arches. â€Å"Meme’ is properly defined in the theory of memetic, which is comprised of information on culture in a unit theory; how evolution of culture or diffusion is blocked, how it propagates form mind to mind and the way a gene propagates from one person or from an organism to an organism. Where memes are multiple, they propagate as â€Å"memeplexes’. Meme complexes act as cooperative groups. (Richard, 1990) A ‘gene’ on the other hand, is a region that can be located and has a sequence called ‘genomic sequence. This corresponds to an inheritance unit that is closely associated with regions that play a regulatory function, the regions, which are transcribed, and other regions with functional sequence. The phenotype and physical development of organisms is believed to be productivity of genes, which interact among themselves and with their environment. Genes are generally inheritance units. A gene generally defines human or organism’s characteristic and the functionality of potential products. Genes do not define products but rather they contain regions. Eukaryotic organisms contain regions, which do not have coding regions and are called introns. These are taken away from RNA, which acts as the messenger in a process referred to as ‘splicing’. Exons are regions, which encode the products of gene. A total number of genes, which make a set, is called ‘genome’. The genome size of an organism is usually low in prokaryotes, which come in base pairs and the gene’s numbers. The theorists of meme state that meme evolve through natural selection, this is similar to biological evolution of Darwin through competition, inheritance, variation and mutation. THE ROLE OF CULTURAL EVOLUTION Cultural evolution and socio-evolution fall under the umbrella called ‘socio-cultural evolution’. It describes how societies and cultures have come into being over time. Cultural theories provide us with models to enhance our understanding on the relationship between our social structure, technologies and society values; and give reasons why and how they change gradually. They change to a degree to which specific mechanisms of social change are described. (Richard 1990) Around 20th and 19th century, there were approaches, which were aimed to give models for humankind evolution. The argument is that the social development of different societies is not in the same stage. The recent approaches of the 20th century emphasize on changes, which are specific to a society as an individual and turn down social progress and directional change. Archeologists and anthropologists use modern theories as the framework of socio-cultural evolution. Sociobiology and neo-evolutionism are some of modern approaches employed to cultural evolution. Richard Dawkins, the ethnologist discovered ‘meme’. According to his book, â€Å"TheSelfish Gene’ 1976, likened human’s cultural evolution unit to a gene. His argument was that replication happens in the culture, through in a different sense. Dawkins contends that meme, which resides in the brain represents units of information and it is the replicator that controls mutation in cultural evolution of humans. This forms a pattern, which has the power to influence surroundings, that is, it can propagate and possesses causal agency. However, his theory caused a heated debate among biologists, sociologists and scientists from other disciplines. Dawkins failed to given adequate explanation about the information units replicates, in organism’s brain, how it can control the behaviour of a human being and finally culture. It is apparent that it was not Dawkins intention to give the theory of memetics. Comprehensively in the selfish gene, he coined the word meme in a kind of speculative spirit. In the same sense, ‘unit of information was given different definitions by different scientists. (Richard 1990). MEME AND EDUCATION It is not entirely impossible though it is hard to debate the subject matter of the functions of emotions in education system if we are lacking the right words to sufficiently discuss the topic. This is the scenario when we reach a point of discussing the functional role of ‘emotional intelligence’ because it has got to do with the needs of our younger brothers and sisters as well as great grandchildren and become stochastically and mathematically proficient so as they can exist and fit in the competition which is characterized by technological advancement. Many educators are failing because they lack words such as ‘eipiphiny’ and ‘mehme’ and hence do not have words, which play an important role of ‘emotional intelligence,’ and how it relates to stochastic and mathematical literacy sufficiently and appropriately address attempts that can be made. The outcome is a system of education that is believed to be failing. If the kids can experience and feel eipiphinies and MEHMES, kids will definitely love maths, and see its relevance to their lives daily. It also contributes a feeling of self-confident. The key here is to create the terms mehme and eipiphiny. Introduction of mehme and eipiphiny may have a positive effect if incorporated in the meme selection process.

Zidovudine for the Prevention of HIV Transmission

Zidovudine for the Prevention of HIV Transmission Introduction Zidovudine is an antiretroviral drug which is a nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitor; it is used as treatment with other antiretroviral drugs against the Human Immunodeficiency Virus. Additionally, zidovudine can be utilised as a means of reducing the risk of transfer of HIV from a pregnant woman to her child. Furthermore, zidovudine is used in post exposure prophylaxis in order to lower the chance of being infected with HIV in people who have been exposed to the virus. (AHFS Drug Information, n.d.). Name Of Drug, Structure, Formula and Functional Groups Zidovudine is also known as azidothymidine and, in short, AZT (Joint Formulary Committee, 2010). The molecular formula of the compound is C10H13N5O4 (The Merck Index, n.d.) and zidovudine has a molecular weight of 267.25, as calculated using the ISIS ChemDraw package (Cambridge Soft, n.d.). Analysing the compound shows that zidovudine is made up of a thymine group bonded to a 2,3-dideoxyribose group with an attached azide group. Therefore the systematic name of zidovudine is 3†²-azido-2, 3†²-dideoxythymidine (The Merck Index, n.d.), as the oxygen of the hydroxyl group on the 3 carbon of the ribose ring has been removed, giving 3-deoxyribose, and has been replaced with an azide group and the oxygen on the 2 carbon has also been removed. The azide group on the ribose ring is the reason why zidovudine acts as a nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitor (AHFS Drug Information, n.d.). In order for zidovudine to carry out its role, it must be phosphorylated by an enzyme called thymidine kinase; this is due to the fact that reverse transcriptase includes the triphosphates produced into the HIV DNA chain being formed during HIV replication. Consequently, after the triphosphate has been included, 5, 3-phosphodiester bonding in the DNA chain is not possible, because of azide group in the triphosphate, and therefore DNA formation cannot continue (Foye et al, 2008). Formulations and Packaging The generic form of zidovudine is available as hard capsules (Electronic Medicines Compendium, n.d.) in two strengths of 100mg and 250mg (Joint Formulary Committee, 2010). Both strengths are packaged in foil blister packs and plastic bottles and need to be kept in these; they have an expiry date of 2 years from the date of manufacture (Electronic Medicines Compendium, n.d.). Zidovudine is also available under the brand name of Retrovir ® in the form of capsules, oral solution and injection solution (Joint Formulary Committee, 2010). All of the Retrovir ® formulations need to be kept below 30 degrees and in their original outer boxes (Electronic Medicines Compendium, n.d.). The capsules are hard capsules (Electronic Medicines Compendium, n.d.) in strengths of 100mg and 250mg (Joint Formulary Committee, 2010); they have an expiry date of five years from the date of manufacture and are packaged in a blister pack or a bottle (Electronic Medicines Compendium, n.d.). The oral solution consists of a 50mg in 5ml dose (Joint Formulary Committee, 2010) and is packaged in an amber bottle made of glass. The oral solution has an expiry date of two years from the date of manufacture but should be disposed of after the bottle has been opened for one month (Electronic Medicines Compendium, n.d.). The injection solution is available in the dose of 10mg per 1ml and is used for intravenous infusion (Joint Formulary Committee, 2010). It is packaged in a glass vial which is amber or clear in colour. The solution has an expiry date of three years after the date of manufacture however, once opened, it must be used straightaway and any remaining solution disposed of (Electronic Medicines Compendium, n.d.). According to Martindale: The Complete Drug Reference (n.d.), all the formulations of zidovudine need to be shielded from sources of light and need to be kept in air tight containers. Stereochemistry and Conformation As highlighted in the diagram drawn using ISIS ChemDraw (Cambridge Soft, n.d.), zidovudine has a total of three chiral centres and hence zidovudine has eight possible stereoisomers. The 1 carbon of the ribose ring is of the R configuration whereas the 3 and 4 carbons are of the S configuration (Novak et al, 2003). Zidovudine has a specific optical rotation value of +99 ° in water (Merck, n.d.) and hence rotates the plane of polarized light clockwise; consequently zidovudine is optically active (Freeman, 2010). Synthesis Zidovudine was made by Jerome Horwitz in 1964 (Weeks et al, 2010). It can be formed from thymidine, however, this is a costly method and therefore a more cost effective technique is used to make zidovudine on a large scale by using D-Mannitol as the starting compound (Saunders, 2000). The process has been drawn below using ISIS ChemDraw (Cambridge Soft, n.d.) with reference to Top Drugs (2000). In the first stage, a derivative of D-glyceraldehyde is formed from D-mannitol using acetone and a source of protons and refluxing. Lead (IV) acetate is then added. In the second stage a Wittig reaction is carried out and PH3P=CHCO2Et and methanol are added. In the third step hydrochloric acid is added, producing a lactone. In the fourth stage the lactone is protected and the azide group is added on through a Michael addition reaction. The reagents used to protect the lactone are t-Bu(Me)2SiCl, imidazole and dimethylformamide. The reagents for the Michael addition reaction are lithium azide, tetrahydrofuran, acetic acid and water. In the fifth stage the lactone is reduced to a lactol at minus 78 degrees using Diisobutylaluminium hydride and dichloromethane. The hydroxyl group is activated to form a sugar intermediate using acetic anhydride and pyridine. In the sixth step, Vorbruggen conditions are adopted and a condensation reaction is performed with the sugar intermediate and silyla ted thymine which produces alpha and beta anomers. The reagents are di-trimethylsilyl-thymine, trimethylsilyl trifluoromethanesulfonate and EDC. In the seventh step, the silyl protecting group is taken off and the anomers are uncombined to obtain zidovudine. The reagents used in this step are n-Bu4N+F- and tetrahydrofuran (Saunders, 2000). Drug stability: Potential sites of chemical instability and metabolism Zidovudine decomposes greatly in the presence of light because of the azide group and the product formed from the breakdown is thymine. This is because two nitrogen atoms are removed from the azide group, forming nitrene. An insertion reaction takes place and aziridine is made. Water, as a nucleophile, attacks aziridine. The amide anion formed causes the thymine group to be nucleophilically displaced and hence thymine is produced as the degradation product (Dunge et al, 2004). Therefore as zidovudine is mostly affected by light it is advised that the various formulations of zidovudine are kept away from light sources (British Pharmacopoeia, 2010). Zidovudine has a bioavailability of 63%. This is due to the fact that zidovudine undergoes glucuronidation, giving zidovudine glucuronide which is more water soluble than zidovudine due to a sugar group being added, and is renally excreted (Burton et al, 2006). UDP-glucuronyl transferease is the enzyme which catalyses the reaction (Veal et al, 1995). Zidovudine can also be converted to 3-amino-3-deoxythymidine due to the azide group being reduced (Veal et al, 1995); 3-amino-3-deoxythymidine can affect the action of zidovudine against HIV and is possibly toxic (Burton et al, 2006). Lipinskis Rules For Orally Active Drugs According to Clarkes Analysis Of Drugs And Poisons (n.d.) the Log P value of Zidovudine is 0.05 and the molecular weight is 267.25 as calculated on ISIS ChemDraw (Cambridge Soft, n.d.). Zidovudine has a total of two hydrogen bond donor sites and a total of nine hydrogen bond acceptor sites (Lipinski et al, 1997). As a result, zidovudine follows Lipinskis Rules of Five as it has a molecular weight of less than 500, a Log P value of less than 5, there are less than five hydrogen bond donor sites and there are less than ten hydrogen bond acceptor sites (Lipinski et al, 1997). As the Log P value of zidovudine is 0.05 (Clarkes Analysis Of Drugs And Poisons, n.d.) it can be seen that the drug is slightly polar. Zidovudine contains aromatic and large aliphatic regions which are hydrophobic; the polar character arises from the hydroxyl group, an amide region, an ether link and azide group, which are all hydrophilic regions. Therefore as there is a slight imbalance of more hydrophilic groups to hydrophobic groups, zidovudine is slightly hydrophilic and slightly polar and therefore is water soluble and has less affinity to cross the lipid membranes (Bichenkova, 2010). pKa and Ionization State At pH 2, 7.4 and 10 and Solubility According to the International Agency for Research on Cancer (n.d.), the pKa value of Zidovudine is 9.68 and hence it is weakly acidic. Using the equation for the percentage of ionization, which has been derived from the Henderson-Hasselbalch equation, I am able to calculate the percentage amount of ionization of zidovudine at various pH values. The equation used consists of: % ionization of an acid = 100/ 1 + antilog(pKa pH) (Freeman, 2010). At pH2, the equation will read % ionization = 100/ 1 + antilog (9.68 2). This gives the value 2.0910^-6 %. Hence it can be seen that in the stomach only a very small amount of zidovudine will be ionized and generally it will be largely unionized. The percentage of zidovudine unionized at pH2 is 99.99% and hence as zidovudine is highly unionized at pH 2, it will be absorbed from the stomach. At pH2 2.0910^-6% of zidovudine is ionized as the azide group can be protonated (Chemicalize, n.d.). At pH 7.4 the calculation gives a value of 0.52%. Hence in the blood stream zidovudine will be largely unionized as the percentage of zidovudine that is unionized in the blood stream is 99.8%. In the bloodstream 0.52% of Zidovudine will be ionized as the azide group can deprotonate (Chemicalize, n.d.). As zidovudine is largely unionized at pH 7.4, it can be absorbed from the bloodstream into the CD4 cells where it carries out its role as an antiretroviral (Foye et al, 2008). At pH 10 a value of 67.63% is obtained. Therefore in basic conditions, zidovudine is largely  ionized as the azide group is deprotonated and the amide group of thymine is deprotonated (Chemicalize, n.d.). The percentage of zidovudine unionized in the blood is 32.37%. Zidovudine is absorbed very quickly in the body (Burton et al, 2006) and this can be seen through the fact that zidovudine is greatly unionised in the stomach and blood stream and hence can quickly enter the CD4 cells in the blood (Foye et al, 2008). Conclusion As zidovudine has an azide group it is able to stop HIV replication (Foye, 2008). Zidovudine follows Lipinskis Rules and hence is well absorbed in the body (Lipinski et al, 1997). As zidovudine has a pKa of 9.68, the drug can be absorbed from the stomach as it will be largely unionised in the stomach. This is also the case for the drug in the bloodstream and hence zidovudine can be taken up quickly by the cells and carry out its role as an antiretroviral despite being slightly polar. The bioavailability of zidovdine is limited however by the fact that some zidovudine is glucuronidated and hence is lost; some zidovudine is also affected by the azide group being reduced as the product formed can affect zidovudines role as an antiretroviral and could be toxic (Burton et al, 2006). As zidovudine degrades in the presence of light, the drug is packaged in blister packs or plastic bottles and all formulations of the drug need to be kept out of light and in the packaging they came in (Electr onic Medicines Compendium, n.d.).

Mary Shelleys Frankenstein Essay examples -- Shelley Frankenstein Ess

Mary Shelley's Frankenstein Mary Shelley’s, Frankenstein, was written during a period of dramatic revolution. The failed French Revolution and Industrial Revolution seriously mark the novel with hints of moral and scientific revolution. Through Frankenstein, Shelley sends out a clear message that morally irresponsible scientific development can unleash a monster that can destroy its creator. Upon beginning the creation process, Victor Frankenstein uses the scientific advances of others to infiltrate the role of nature. "The modern masters promise very little.. But these philosophers .. have indeed performed miracles.. They penetrate into the recesses of nature and show how she works in her hiding-places. They ascend into the heavens; they have discovered how the blood circulates, and the nature of the air we breath. They have acquired new and almost unlimited powers; they can command the thunders of heaven, mimic the earthquake, and even mock the invisible world of its own shadows"(47). Frankenstein sees these innovations as overpowering and substantially giving humans the power of god. Frankenstein believes that through these new scientific powers human kind would be served with a positive effect. Disease could be banished and self glory could result. "what glory would attend the discovery if I could banish disease from the human frame and render man invulnerable to any but a violent death"(40)! Shelley characterizes Frankenstein as a modern a mad scientist...

Class, Socialization, and Politics Essay -- Political Socialization an

Elections are at the core of the American political system. They are the way we choose our government, the source of government authority, and a means by which the people can influence public policy. For most Americans, voting is the only form of political participation. Essential questions to ask concerning these issues are: Who votes and why? What influences people to become voters? And what influences how they vote? It is important to approach these issues from a sociological standpoint addressing such matters as socialization and social stratification. Socialization is a gradual process that takes place as we grow up. It is the process that aids in developing attitudes and opinions that allow us get along within a society. These beliefs affect the political views we hold later in life. Through social agencies such as family, schools, peers, and media we become aware of social rules and develop a social identity. (Introduction to Sociology Pg. 96) A product of this development is political socialization, which is the process of learning political attitudes and behaviors. The idea of political socialization helps in providing the answers to the questions concerning who votes. It aids in explaining how and why people participate in politics. The strongest agent in political socialization is the family. What this means is that most children adopt beliefs similar to those held by their parents. Therefore most people will believe in and vote for issues that are important to members of their family’s. The extent to which an individ ual is involved in the political process is shaped by his or her family’s level of involvement. For example, a child is less likely to vote if they are raised by parents who don’t regularly go to the polls on Election Day. Children of course, don’t always copy their parents’ political learning’s, but are often heavily influenced by them. As a result, most people end up favoring the political party that their parents generally identify with. Social Characteristics also affect how an individual will participate in politics. Whether a person is young or old, black or white, rich or poor, northerner or southerner will have a heavy impact on his or her political opinions and behavior. Class may be just as important in shaping people’s political opinions and behaviors. The term social class refers to one of the systems of structured... ...rank of middle class tend to have a much lower level of involvement in politics while those who rise above the line feel quite the opposite. Granted there will be deviant cases that can on some level disprove these theories. But on the grand scale, class remains as the supreme cause of such severe division among the attitudes expressed by the American people. Bibliography 1.)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Hammond, John L. The Politics of Benevolence: Revival Religion and American Voting Behavior. Norwood, New Jersey: Ablex Publishing Corporation, 1979. 2.)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Doppelt, Jack C. and Shearer, Ellen. Non-Voters: America’s No Shows. Thousand Oaks, California: Sage Publications Inc., 1999 3.)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Bailey Jr., Harry A. and Katz, Ellis. Ethnic Group Politics. Columbus, Ohio: Charles E. Merrill Publishing Company, 1969. 4.)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Houtman, Dick. Class and Politics in Contemporary Social Science. New York: Walter de Gruyter Inc., 2003. 5.)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Catt, Helena. Voting Behavior: A Radical Critique. London: Leicester University Press, 1996. 6.)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Giddens, Anthony, Duneier, Mitchell, and Appelbaum, Richard P. Introduction to Sociology: Fourth Edition. New York: W.W. Norton & Company Inc., 2003.

Buddhism in Sculpture Essay -- essays research papers

Image that is recognized all around the world, name that does not take time remembering when that image is seen, a half naked man sitting in a meditative pose - some god, as seen by most people, Buddha is a messenger of internal peace that has as much of a story behind him as Jesus or Allah. Religions iconography and gods represented in sculptures always have a great deal of symbolism involved in them. Nothing ordinary person would look into these days until the topic is confronted unavoidably through a class or a show in a museum, which I was lucky enough to take a part of recently.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Every Buddhist statue tells a story of its own. Educated person can say where the statue comes from and which time period it comes from just by looking at certain features, which proves the unique developments in eastern art, art that is so similar and different at the same time. Statues originating from same countries a lot of times are made of the same materials and are decorated in ways that trace throughout the region. For example there are three major features that characterize the Luang Prabang Buddha in comparison to those of the neighboring countries. The usanisa (cranial protuberance) is always embellished with a stylized flame; the earlobe unusually long is shaped like a snail shell; and the urna or divine frontal sign is never represented.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  There is something unique about the statuary representations of Buddha that sets Buddh...

Biomedical or scientific, naturalistic or holistic

People view illness and death differently depending including on their own personal beliefs as well as their culture. The 3 major views that are often used by different cultures to explain the causes of death and disease are: biomedical or scientific, naturalistic or holistic, and magic-religious. Biochemical or scientific worldview is the most prevalent view in our healthcare system and it is embraced by most nurses and other health care providers. The basic idea of this view is that all events in life have a cause and effect, and that the human body works like a machine, and all reality can be observed and measured (ex:BP, Papa levels, intelligence test. ) one example of the biochemical or scientific view regarding disease and illness is the bacterial or viral explanation of communicable disease. A naturalistic or holistic viewpoint are commonly embraced among the Native American, Hispanics, African American, Arab and Asian cultures. This viewpoint explains and focuses on the holis tic explanation of what caused the disease. This belief focuses on keeping the forces of nature in natural balance and harmony. Many Asian groups believe in the yin and yang theory which is a great example of this viewpoint.The yin and yang theory is a belief that there Is an ultimate balance between everything in life one way or another, meaning that health is believed to exist when all aspects of a person are In perfect balance or harmony. According to the holistic theories, disrupting the laws of nature creates Imbalances, chaos, and disease. The Magic- Religious view's basic concept It that the world Is a place where the supernatural forces dominate, and they believe that the fate of everyone depends on the action of the supernatural forces for good and evil.According to some African American and Caribbean people their explanations of magical causes of Illness Include belief In voodoo or which craft. There are some Christian religions that believe In faith healing to help fight disease and Infection. These three viewpoints are defiantly very different from one another. As a nurse, It Is important to be aware that people view heath and Illness differently. A nurse must know that not matter If they agrees with the patient's views or not, they must respect the patients beliefs and do everything possible to work within the guidelines of their sews and beliefs to give them the best care possible.Brenner: Chapter 7 [pages 102-103] http://YMMV. Credulous. Com/theory/waylaying. CFML http://w+M. Nursing-nurse. Com/causes-of-illness-236/ biomedical or scientific, naturalistic or holistic, and magic-religious By Alexandra_enema example of this viewpoint. The yin and yang theory is a belief that there is an is believed to exist when all aspects of a person are in perfect balance or harmony. According to the holistic theories, disrupting the laws of nature creates imbalances, chaos, and disease.The Magic- Religious views basic concept it that the world is a magical cau ses of illness include belief in voodoo or which craft. There are some Christian religions that believe in faith healing to help fight disease and infection. These three viewpoints are defiantly very different from one another. As a nurse, it is important to be aware that people view heath and illness differently. A nurse must know that not matter if they agrees with the patient's views or not, they must respect http://www. Credulous. Com/theory/yang. CFML http://www. Nursing-nurse. Com/causes-of-illness-236/

Teachers And Teaching In The Uae Education Essay

On Sunday, 07 February 2010 an Education Policy Forum took topographic point in the Dubai School of Government titled â€Å" Teachers and Teaching in the UAE. † The session included 4 panellists: Dr. Ian Haslam, Vice Chancellor of Emirates College for Advanced Education, Dr. Jane Truscott, Academic Programme Coordinator for Madares Al Ghad, Ministry of Education, Dr. Peggy Blackwell, Dean, College of Education, Zayed University, and, Jill Clark, Principal Curriculum Advisor for Early Years, Centre for British Teachers in Abu Dhabi. The panel was headed by the Moderator Dr. Natasha Ridge, Research Fellow, Dubai School of Government. The forum discussed the challenges and troubles to building an first-class instruction work force with quality, instructors ‘ fulfilment and satisfaction degree with the preparation and instruction they get, and how the preparation of instructors is altering instruction in the United Arab Emirates. Dr. Haslam started his treatment by inquiring what are the challenges to constructing a quality learning work force in the UAE? What are the challenges to raising the quality of the current instructors? What are the clear regulations and ordinances? He mentions the Singapore Model. Dr. Haslam focuses specifically on the significance of cooperation between schools and other larning establishments in public society. He mentioned that they need more work forces in ( ECAE ) as it is dominated by adult females. He talked about the 11,000 instructors who performed really ill on IELTS and had really low tonss. He added that most of the instructors do non hold pre-teaching preparation. Dr. Haslam emphasized the importance of constructing partnership between the province and the schools. He mentioned an of import point that if the pupils are underperforming, it is the instructor to fault and if the instructor is underachieving it is the Head of the Institution to fault. He said there need to be alteration and development in the procedure of how instructors are recruited and how it is extremely of import to maintain advancing by puting in research in instruction and professional development. The 2nd panellist was Dr. Jane Truscott. She started off by stating that Madares Al Ghad has 44 schools all over the Emirates with the same budget and resources as the remainder of the Ministry of Education schools. There are 3 chief ends of Madares al Ghad: to make a first educational system, to increase the capacity of UAE instructors, she says â€Å" the instructors are our resource for effectual instruction † , and to increase linguistic communication proficiency of class 12 alumnuss. She discusses the category room methodological analysis and as to who chooses the course of study. She negotiations of the importance of traveling to a modern category room where pupils can work in groups and where critical thought and collaborative acquisition takes topographic point. The pupils should larn new engineerings, she adds and to go experts with greater liberty and duty. The pupils have to go independent instead than dependent on the instructors. She so moves to discourse the chal lenges that face the instructor and how the quality of instructors is to be improved, how teacher preparation is transforming instructors in the Madares Al Ghad Schools. She talks about how to better the system overall and how to back up the mechanisms for the instructors to back up their attempts to do alteration. The tierces panellist, Dr. Peggy Blackwell spoke about some challenges that are confronting the instruction profession. The first thing she mentioned was the demand of a acquisition centre for instructors. She adds, the instructors need initial readying in the university and professional readying outside the university. The instructors have to cognize what they are learning and how to reassign the content to the pupils. Blackwell discusses the ends which are: to give the instructor the nucleus cognition for their calling and professional development, for every instructor to learn in a manner to optimise the cognition for the pupils. She talks about the importance of research and how course of study is of import for learning. Teachers should cognize about kid development and reliable appraisal of pupils. What could be the challenges? she discusses. There are a figure of challenges: Geographic scattering, non plenty support, non plenty follow up and work with the instructors, the Emira ti pattern of a short school twenty-four hours and school twelvemonth and many more. She so moves to the recommendations which are: the governments should present enfranchisement and licensing given to instructors when they complete professional criterion, a research Centre, learning Arabic linguistic communication is critical and how to learn it and to pay attending to what the pupils have to state and their feedback. Last, Jill Clark starts off by speaking briefly about the what the Centre ‘s mission and the alterations and transmutations initiated by the Centre for British Teachers in Abu Dhabi over the past 4 old ages in a figure of schools in Abu Dhabi. She said that Abu Dhabi invests a batch of money to develop the schools and to back up the instructors and a batch of schools have had good support ( substructure, equipment, etc†¦ ) from Abu Dhabi Education Council. These developments and alterations included doing the schoolrooms a more exciting topographic point to analyze, supplying entree to engineering in the schoolroom and extra instruction equipments and stuffs. She mentions the importance of civilization and heritage and how indispensable that the kids remember the UAE values and history. The English linguistic communication should be developed and that instructors should make this strong bond with the students and develop active larning communicating with the parents. Clark s discusses the major purposes of the Centre which are to make to the criterion of International Education, to develop on Humanistic disciplines, physical instruction and wellness, bilingual development, larning in context ( active acquisition ) and job resolution, instructors have to travel for lessons after school for English, regular appraisals of acquisition and developing practical patterns. She concludes by saying that the consequences until now have been really successful. After the four panellists finished their treatments, the moderator of the session, Dr. Natasha Ridge, opened the floor for inquiries and she concluded by reemphasizing the necessity to originate original and new learning methods to hold the students engage good. At the terminal of the forum, it was agreed that important partnerships need to be promoted between the state, the instruction mechanisms and other authorities organic structures to sketch indispensable policies that affects the development of kids.

Free Will in Scientific Psychology Essay

Actions are freer than others, and the difference is palpably important in terms of inner process, subjective perception, and social consequences. Psychology can study the difference between freer and less free actions without making dubious metaphysical commitments. Human evolution seems to have created a relatively new, more complex form of action control that corresponds to popular notions of free will. It is marked by self-control and rational choice, both of which are highly adaptive, especially for functioning within culture. The processes that create these forms of free will may be biologically costly and therefore are only used occasionally, so that people are likely to remain only incompletely self-disciplined, virtuous, and rational. BACKGROUND What shall I do? Why did you do that? Are people captains of their fate, or are they mere products of their times and victims of circumstances? Should they be held responsible for their actions? These and similar questions pertain to the psychological problem of free will, also known as freedom of action. At the core of the question of free will is a debate about the psychological causes of action. That is, is the person an autonomous entity who genuinely chooses how to act from among multiple possible options? Or is the person essentially just one link in a causal chain, so that the person’s actions are merely the inevitable product of lawful causes stemming from prior events, and no one ever could have acted differently than how he or she actually did? My thesis is that free will can be understood in terms of the different processes that control human action and that, indeed, these differences correspond to what laypersons generally mean when they distinguish free from unfree action. To discuss free will in the terms of scienti? c psychology is therefore to invoke notions of self-regulation, controlled processes, behavioral plasticity, and conscious decisionmaking. Address correspondence to Roy F. Baumeister, Department of Psychology, Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL 32306; e-mail: baumeister@psy. fsu. edu. The extreme positions on free will have been staked out through centuries of philosophical debate. On the negative side, the deterministic position can be traced from Democritus through Spinoza, Comte, and Freud. It leaves no room for free human choice. Everything that happens is the unavoidable product of prior causes. The universe resembles a giant machine, grinding along exactly as it must. There is no difference between the categories of possible and actual in this view: Everything that happened was inevitable, and nothing else was ever possible. The subjective impression that when you make a choice you really can choose any of several options is an illusion, because forces outside your consciousness are in motion to determine what you will choose, even if you do not know until the last minute what that choice will be. On the other side, Jean-Paul Sartre (1943/1974) argued passionately in favor of human freedom. He contended that people are always, inevitably free—‘‘condemned to freedom,’’ in his famous phrase. Life is a series of choice points, and at each choice point, you could have chosen differently than you did. (Thus, the category of the possible is far, far more vast than the category of the actual, in this view. ) When people say they could not help acting as they did, they are engaging in self-deception (bad faith, in Sartre’s term), because they could actually have acted otherwise—could have held their tongue, walked another step, resisted the temptation, and so forth. Other outcomes really were possible. In between those extremes, many thinkers have proposed limited or partial freedom. Kant (1797/1967) proposed that people have a capacity for free action but only use it sometimes. For him, freedom meant acting in a morally virtuous manner based on enlightened reasoning. His argument thus aptly sets up the emphasis on self-control and rational choice as two widely adaptive forms of free will. If free will is only occasional, whereas behavior is constantly occurring, then it is necessary to posit two systems for guiding behavior: a default one that mostly runs the show and an occasional one that sometimes intervenes to make changes. Free will should be understood not as the starter or motor of action but rather as a passenger who occasionally grabs the steering wheel or even as just a navigator who says to turn left up ahead. 14 Copyright r 2008 Association for Psychological Science Volume 3—Number 1 Roy F. Baumeister OBJECTIONS TO THE VERY IDEA Many psychologists disdain the idea of free will, for several reasons. First, some think that in order to be a scientist it is necessary to believe in determinism, because a scientist studies causality and cannot tolerate or accept exceptions. Second, and related to the ? rst, free choice (especially the full, extreme case of total freedom) cannot seem to be explained in scienti? c terms. Causality is how the human mind generally (and the scienti? c mind particularly) understands events, and there is no way to explain a free action causally. In other words, even if free will exists, there is no use in scientists talking about it, because there would be no replicable patterns of behavior. (On this I disagree most emphatically—see below. Third, and perhaps more formidably, plenty of research has by now shown that people are sometimes mistaken when they believe their actions to be free, insofar as factors outside their awareness do exert a causal in? uence on them (e. g. , Bargh, 1994; Wegner, 2002; Wilson, 2002). The fact that automatic, nonconscious processes are the direct causes of action (e. g. , Libet, 1985, 1999) seems now well established and has dealt a severe blow to some theories of conscious free will. But new theories of action have separated the deciding from the initiating (Gollwitzer, 1999), and free conscious choosing may have its main role in the deciding (deliberative) stage. To illustrate, free will would have more to do with deciding (now) to walk to the store when the rain stops (later) than with directing each footstep during the actual trip. Modern research methods and technology have emphasized slicing behavior into milliseconds, but these advances may paradoxically conceal the important role of conscious choice, which is mainly seen at the macro level (Donald, 2002). Meanwhile, there are several objections to the determinists too. To require scientists to believe in determinism seems unwarranted. After all, the deterministic hypothesis—that every event is fully and inevitably caused by prior events and nothing else than what happened was ever possible—is itself unproven and even unprovable, so it requires a big leap of faith. Determinism is also contrary to everyday experience (in which people do make choices, and they believe subjectively that more than one outcome is possible). Moreover, to say that scienti?c data and especially psychological data point to determinism is itself severely overstated. Most psychological experiments demonstrate probabilistic rather than deterministic causation: A given cause changes the odds of a particular response but almost never operates with the complete inevitability that deterministic causality would entail. These objections do not disprove determinism, but they certainly raise questions. It seems unreasonable to require that every scientist must believe something that is unproven, unproveable, contrary to daily experience, and incongruent with our data. A further objection to determinism is the observation that freedom and choice are woven deeply into the fabric of human relations and activities. If freedom and choice are completely illusions—if the outcome of every choice was inevitable all along—why must people agonize so over decisions? Why do they argue and strive so much for the right to decide (that is, for power and liberty)? Why has so much political, economic, and social struggle been aimed at increasing freedom if freedom is just an illusion? The presence versus absence of choice, control, autonomy, and freedom has been shown to be a signi?cant causal factor in many aspects of human life, including dissonance and consistency (Linder, Cooper, & Jones, 1967), reactance (Brehm, 1966), stress and coping (Glass, Singer, & Friedman, 1969), and motivated performance (Ryan & Deci, 2000). Moreover, with few circumscribed exceptions, people almost always prefer freedom and are better off with it—and seemingly not just because the lack of freedom prevents them from securing tangible rewards. It is not as if people would be ? ne with slavery or prison if only the food were better. Countless people have risked and sacri?ced their lives in ? ghting to achieve and defend freedom, and it is very dif? cult to ? nd historical instances of uprisings or wars based on a demand for less freedom. Laypersons may not understand the concept of free will in the same way as philosophers and scientists, but they use ‘‘freedom’’ to denote some psychological phenomena that are powerful and important. PSYCHOLOGY’S TASK In my opinion, it would be a mistake for psychologists to argue about whether free will exists and to debate the conceptual details. Philosophers and others have already spent centuries re? ning the concepts through such argument, and repeating their work would not be a good use of time and effort. In comparison with philosophers, psychologists are amateurs at conceptual re? nement and debate but are specialists at conducting experimental tests of causal hypotheses. Our expertise is thus not well suited for ascertaining the existence or nonexistence of free will, which is probably impossible to prove. Researchers such as Wegner (2002) and Bargh and Morsella (2008, this issue) may show that people are sometimes unaware of the causes of particular behaviors, but such ?ndings are incapable of establishing that all behaviors are the result of ? rm causal processes of which people are unaware. Conversely, it seems equally impossible to prove that a given person could have acted differently than he or she did under exactly the same circumstances. Psychology’s contribution lies elsewhere. Psychologists should focus on what we do best: collecting evidence about measurable variance in behaviors and inner processes and identifying consistent patterns in them. With free will, it seems most productive for psychologists to start with the well-documented observation that some acts are freer than others. As already noted, dissonance, reactance, coping with stress, and other behaviors have been shown in the laboratory to depend on variations in freedom and choice. Hence, it is only necessary to assume that there are genuine phenomena behind those subjective and objective Volume 3—Number 1 15 Free Will in Scienti? c Psychology differences in freedom. In a nutshell, we should explain what happens differently between free and unfree actions. Thus, the optimal agenda for psychology would be to ? nd out what people mean when they use concepts of freedom, choice, and responsibility in their daily lives and then to illuminate the inner processes that produce those phenomena. WHAT MAKES ACTION FREE? A starting point for psychology is to identify what aspects of an action make people regard it as free versus unfree. To be sure, some factors can contribute to a mistaken sense of freedom in one’s own action. Wegner (2002) showed that when the thought of an event immediately precedes its actual occurrence, people believe they have caused it, even if in reality they have not. For example, when participants who were moving a cursor around a computer screen along with someone else (akin to having four hands on the pointer on a Ouija board) heard the name of some image mentioned and then the cursor stopped there 2 s later, they believed that they had intentionally caused the cursor to stop, even though the stopping was actually programmed by the apparatus (Wegner & Wheatley, 1999). There are several ways to interpret these ? ndings. One is to suggest that all conscious will and volition are illusions: From the observation that people are sometimes mistaken about conscious will, one could extrapolate that they are always mistaken. Another is to suggest that people do not have a direct, introspective way of knowing when they initiate action, and so they rely on salient cues to give them the feel and subjective impression of having acted or chosen, and this system of cues can be fooled. Shifts in the social distribution of causality and agency are important to people, and these correspond to social phenomena that people have encountered for millennia. Power, for example, confers on one person the right to make decisions that may affect others (e. g. , Keltner, Gruenfeld, & Anderson, 2003), and the long history of power struggles can be viewed as being about who gets to choose. Studies by Brehm (1966) and his colleagues have also shown that people are very sensitive to having their freedom of choice restricted by others. When an option is taken away from them, they respond by desiring that option more, by trying actively to reassert that freedom and take that option, and even by aggressing against whomever restricted their freedom. Such patterns seem hard to reconcile with the view that all free will and choice (in every sense) are illusions: Why would people care so much about something that is entirely inconsequential? Another approach to understanding what people mean by free will is to have participants rate how free a stimulus person’s actions are. Stillman, Sparks, Baumeister, and Tice (2006) had participants rate scenarios that varied systematically along several dimensions. Participants rated people’s actions as freest when their choices were made after conscious deliberation, when their actions went against external pressure rather than going along with it, and when people acted against their shortterm self-interest. Thus conscious, rational choice and selfcontrol seem to be integral parts of what people perceive as free. When people wrote autobiographical accounts of their own acts that felt free or unfree, pursuing long-term personal goals was central to the feeling of freedom. The difference suggests that people see free will in others as useful for restraining their socially undesirable impulses, but in themselves they see free will in the sustained pursuit of (enlightened) self-interest. As Dennett (1984, 2003) has argued, free will is hardly worth having unless it helps you get something you want. THE EVOLUTION OF FREEDOM Several recent authors have argued that human freedom of action is a product of evolutionary processes (e. g. , Dennett, 2003). I proposed that the de? ning thrust of human psychological evolution was selection in favor of cultural capability (Baumeister, 2005). That process might well have included a new, different way of controlling behavior, whose purpose was enabling the beast to function in a complex, information-based society. The hallmarks of this new form of behavioral control include personal responsibility, conscious deliberation, invoking abstract rules and principles to guide actions, autonomous initiative, and a capacity to resist urges that have earlier evolutionary roots but that may be incompatible with civilized life (e. g. , eating any food you ? nd when hungry, including what is on the plates of other restaurant patrons). Whether this pattern will satisfy the various theological and philosophical de? nitions of free will is hard to say, but it could well correspond to what ordinary people mean when they speak of free action. The previous section noted that free will has to be useful for bene? ting the person. Evolution has favored animals with psychological processes insofar as those processes help them pursue their goals. A more intelligent animal, for example, may be better able to ? nd food and reproduce than a less intelligent one. In human cultural life, however, there is sometimes a tradeoff between short-term and long-term goals, and much of the success of the human species is based on our ability to sacri? ce short-term goals for the long-term ones, as in delay of grati? cation (Mischel & Ayduk, 2004). For example, taking someone else’s food may bring short-term bene? ts, but if it leads the other group members to imprison or expel the person, it could be self-defeating in the long run. Hence free will may be most useful in fostering the pursuit of enlightened self-interest. Were evolution working instead to enable the human animal to pursue what it wants right now to maximum effect, it might have promoted physical strength, speed, and ferocity rather than brainpower and social skills. But to succeed and live harmoniously in a cultural group, the animal is best served by being able to inhibit its impulses and desires. Perhaps ironically, free will is necessary to enable people to follow rules. 16 Volume 3—Number 1 Roy F. Baumeister Let me focus brie? y on two of the most important phenomena that are associated with the concept of free will: self-control and rational intelligent choice. The cultural-animal argument has the following assumptions. First, self-control and smart choice are much more highly developed in humans than in other animals and thus are among the most distinctively human traits. Second, these traits are highly conducive for living in a cultural society. Third, these traits are probably interrelated in the sense of sharing some inner processes and mechanisms, which suggests that one evolved ? rst and the other piggy-backed on the ? rst one’s system. My speculative evolutionary scenario is that self-control evolved ? rst, because it is useful already in merely social (as opposed to cultural) groups. For example, it would be natural for hungry animals to eat food that they see and want, but in many social groups the alpha male would beat up any other who tries to take his food or usurp his other prerogatives. Therefore, in order to live in social groups, animals must develop the capacity to restrain their impulses and bring their behavior into line with externally imposed constraints. Moving from social to cultural groups substantially increases the importance of following rules, including moral principles, laws, commands, religious prescriptions, norms, and customs. Rational intelligent choice, then, evolved later than selfcontrol and was even more distinctively associated with culture. Culture is based on information, and the large amount of information in a culture creates great opportunities for reasoning powers to sort through it and draw action-relevant conclusions. Human decision making is far more complex and varied than that in other species. As Searle (2001) pointed out, rationality is widely regarded as a central human trait, but not all have noticed that rationality entails at least some limited concept of free will—at least to the extent that one can alter one’s behavior on the basis of that reasoning. Put another way, self-control gives the capacity to alter your behavior to conform to the group’s rules, and rationality enables you to work out your own rules and then behave accordingly. This line of thought ? ts the view of free will as a sometime thing. People are incompletely rational and self-controlled. They have the capacity for acting for acting rationally and exerting self-control, but they only use it sometimes. This suggests the capacity is limited. WHY FREE WILL IS LIMITED Our research on ego depletion provides one way to understand why free will is at best an occasional phenomenon. In testing several competing theories about self-regulation, we consistently found that people performed relatively poorly at almost any self-control task if they had recently performed a different self-control task (Baumeister, Bratslavsky, Muraven, & Tice, 1998; Muraven & Baumeister, 2000). The implication is that some resource is used up by the ? rst act of self-control, leaving less available for the second. Choice may also deplete the same resource. Vohs et al.(2006) found that making a series of choices led to poorer self-control on subsequent, unrelated tasks, as compared with just thinking about items or answering questions about them without making choices among them. The fact that effortful choice uses the same resource as self-control links the two main forms of free will and supports the idea that they share a common underlying mechanism. Thus, the traditional concept of ‘‘willpower’’ does appear to be a useful metaphor, insofar as both self-control and rational choice rely on some kind of power. To move beyond metaphor, Gailliot et al.(2007) began studying blood-glucose dynamics. Glucose is a chemical in the bloodstream that is the fuel for brain (and other) activities. Although all brain processes use glucose, some use much more than others, and self-control is a likely candidate to be one of these more expensive processes. Gailliot et al. (2007) found that acts of self-control caused reductions in the levels of glucose in the bloodstream, and that low levels of blood glucose after initial acts of self-control were strongly correlated with poor self-control on subsequent tasks. Moreover, experimental administrations of glucose counteracted some of the ego-depletion effects. That is, drinking a glass of lemonade with sugar enabled people to perform well at self-control even if they had recently gone through a depleting exercise of self-control. Lemonade made with a sugar substitute (thus not furnishing glucose) had no effect. These ? ndings suggest that human evolution developed a second, new, and expensive way of controlling action. It involved using relatively large quantities of the body’s caloric energy to fuel complex psychological processes. If the cultural-animal argument is correct, then these processes should have improved biological success by enabling people to behave in more advantageous ways. Ample evidence con? rms that this second executive mode of action control has adaptive bene? ts and that when its resources are depleted or inadequate, behavior is less successful. Nondepleted persons outperform ego-depleted ones at making effective and unbiased decisions (Amir, Dhar, Pocheptsaya, & Baumeister, 2007), at logical reasoning and intelligent thought (Schmeichel, Vohs, & Baumeister, 2003), and at active coping with unexpected setbacks (Vohs & Baumeister, 2006). Self-control has multiple bene? ts, and people who are high on the trait end up more successful in work and school, are more popular and better liked, have healthier and more stable relationships, commit fewer crimes, and have less psychopathology (Duckworth & Seligman, 2005; Gottfredson & Hirschi, 1990; Mischel, Shoda, & Peake, 1988; Tangney, Baumeister, & Boone, 2004). And as for following rules generally, there is some cross-cultural evidence that countries with higher rule of law report signi? cantly higher subjective well-being (Veenhoven, 2004). Volume 3—Number 1 17 Free Will in Scienti? c Psychology BELIEVING IN FREEDOM This brief article has argued that psychology’s task is to ? nd out what people perceive as free will and what genuine psychological phenomena underlie those perceptions. Such investigations will not establish whether free will exists according to some philosophical or theological de? nitions, and it remains possible that many laypersons’ beliefs about free will are partly or wholly mistaken. If free will is entirely an illusion, however, then it becomes especially perplexing that people devote so much time and effort to sustaining those illusions. Belief in free will is highly relevant to many social, legal, and moral judgments. For example, if all actions are fully caused and therefore inevitable, why does the legal system spend so much time trying to establish whether a perpetrator was acting freely? ‘‘Heat of passion’’ crimes are just as fully caused as any other crimes, in that view, so it makes little sense for judges to award lighter sentences. Yet they do. One possible explanation for the widespread social belief in free will is that it helps produce socially desirable and harmonious actions. To return to the cultural-animal framework, I am assuming that people evolved so as to be able to live and work in culture (Baumeister, 2005). Anything that makes people better able to do that, including improvements in cooperation and prosocial actions or reductions in antisocial actions, would therefore be bene? cial. To speculate, cultures that believed in free will might have outreproduced and supplanted cultures that did not. Belief in free will does support socially desirable actions, according to Vohs and Schooler (2008). They found that participants who had been induced to disbelieve in free will were subsequently more likely than a control group to cheat on a test. Further studies by Baumeister, Masicampo, and DeWall (2006) using the Vohs–Schooler methods found that inducing participants to disbelieve in free will made them more aggressive and less helpful toward others. If we combine the cheating, aggression, and helping ? ndings, it seems reasonable to suggest that belief in free will is conducive to better, more harmonious social behavior. CONCLUSION A scienti?c approach to free will should perhaps start with the view that freedom of action evolved as a new, more sophisticated form of controlling behavior. Its two components, self-control and rational intelligent choice, conferred important advantages by enabling the human animal to function within a cultural society. Recent evidence about ego depletion and glucose dynamics suggests that this new, freer form of action control is biologically expensive, which may help explain why free will is only used occasionally. Nonetheless, even its occasional use may contribute greatly to increasing the ? Exibility and adaptive diversity of human behavior. Acknowledgments—Work on this article was facilitated by a grant from the Templeton Foundation, and it builds on research supported by Grant MH57039 from the National Institute of Mental Health. REFERENCES Amir, O. , Dhar, R. , Pocheptsaya, A. , & Baumeister, R. F. (2007). The fatigued decision maker: Ego depletion changes decision process and outcome. Manuscript submitted for publication. Bargh, J. A. (1994). The four horsemen of automaticity: Awareness, ef? ciency, intention, and control in social cognition. In R. S. Wyer Jr. , & T. K. Srull (Eds. ), Handbook of social cognition (2nd ed. , pp. 1–40). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. Bargh, J. A. , & Morsella, E. (2008). The primacy of the unconscious. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 3, 73–79. Baumeister, R. F. (2005). The cultural animal: Human nature, meaning, and social life. New York: Oxford University Press. Baumeister, R. F. , Bratslavsky, E. , Muraven, M. , & Tice, D. M. (1998). Ego depletion: Is the active self a limited resource? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74, 1252–1265. Baumeister, R. F. , Masicampo, E. J. , & DeWall, C. N. (2006). Prosocial bene? ts of feeling free: Inducing disbelief in free will increases aggression and reduces helpfulness. Manuscript submitted for publication. Brehm, J. (1966). A theory of psychological reactance. New York: Academic Press. Dennett, D. C. (1984). Elbow room: The varieties of free will worth wanting. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Dennett, D. C. (2003). Freedom evolves. New York: Viking/Penguin. Donald, M. (2002). A mind so rare: The evolution of human consciousness. New York: Norton. Duckworth, A. L. , & Seligman, M. E. P. (2005). Self-discipline outdoes IQ in predicting academic performance of adolescents. Psychological Science, 16, 939–944. Gailliot, M. T. , Baumeister, R. F. , DeWall, C. N. , Maner, J. K. , Plant, E. A. , Tice, D. M. , et al. (2007). Self-control relies on glucose as a limited energy source: Willpower is more than a metaphor. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 92, 325–336. Glass, D. C. , Singer, J. E. , & Friedman, L. N. (1969). Psychic cost of adaptation to an environmental stressor. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 12, 200–210. Gollwitzer, P. M. (1999). Implementation intentions: Strong effects of simple plans. American Psychologist, 54, 493–503. Gottfredson, M. R., & Hirschi, T. (1990). A general theory of crime. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. The distinction between free choice and unfree action has enormous and widespread signi? cance individually, socially, historically, and politically. That distinction also seems so thoroughly woven into the fabric of human social life that it seems quixotic to try to imagine a society that had abandoned the concept so as to operate ‘‘beyond freedom and dignity,’’ in Skinner’s (1971) titular phrase. Psychology can explore and elucidate that difference between free and unfree action without having to resolve metaphysical questions. Conscious, controlled, and self-regulating processes seem likely to be important aspects of what people understand as free will. 18 Volume 3—Number 1 Roy F. Baumeister Kant, I. (1967). Kritik der praktischen Vernunft [Critique of practical reason]. Hamburg, Germany: Felix Meiner Verlag. (Original work published 1797) Keltner, D. , Gruenfeld, D. H. , & Anderson, C. (2003). Power, approach, and inhibition. Psychological Review, 110, 265–284. Libet, B. (1985). Unconscious cerebral initiative and the role of conscious will in voluntary action. Behavior and Brain Sciences, 8, 529–566. Libet, B. (1999). Do we have free will? Journal of Consciousness Studies, 6, 47–57. Linder, D. E. , Cooper, J. , & Jones, E. E. (1967). Decision freedom as a determinant of the role of incentive magnitude in attitude change. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 6, 245–254. Mischel, W. , & Ayduk, O. (2004). Willpower in a cognitive-affective processing system: The dynamics of delay of grati? cation. In R. Baumeister & K. Vohs (Eds. ), Handbook of self-regulation: Research, theory, and applications (pp. 99–129). New York: Guilford. Mischel, W. , Shoda, Y. , & Peake, P. K. (1988). The nature of adolescent competencies predicted by preschool delay of grati? cation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 54, 687–696. Muraven, M. R. , & Baumeister, R. F. (2000). Self-regulation and depletion of limited resources: Does self-control resemble a muscle? Psychological Bulletin, 126, 247–259. Ryan, R. M. , & Deci, E. L. (2000). Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being. American Psychologist, 55, 68–78. Sartre, J. -P. (1974). Being and nothingness. Secaucus, NJ: Citadel. (Original work published 1943) Schmeichel, B. J. , Vohs, K. D. , & Baumeister, R. F. (2003). Intellectual performance and ego depletion: Role of the self in logical reasoning and other information processing. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 85, 33–46. Searle, J. R. (2001). Rationality in action. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Skinner, B. F. (1971). Beyond freedom and dignity. New York: Knopf. Stillman, T. D. , Sparks, E. , Baumeister, R. F. , & Tice, D. M. (2006). What makes freedom? Situational factors that in? uence ratings of free will. Manuscript in preparation. Tangney, J. P. , Baumeister, R. F. , & Boone, A. L. (2004). High selfcontrol predicts good adjustment, less pathology, better grades, and interpersonal success. Journal of Personality, 72, 271–322. Veenhoven, R. (2004). World database of happiness: Continuous register of scienti? c research on subjective appreciation of life. Retrieved September 26, 2004, from http://www. eur. nl/fsw/research/happiness Vohs, K. D. , & Baumeister, R. F. (2006). Does depletion promote passivity? Self-regulatory resources and active coping. Manuscript in preparation. Vohs, K. D. , Baumeister, R. F. , Nelson, N. M. , Rawn, C. D. , Twenge, J. M. , Schmeichel, B. J. , & Tice, D. M. (2006). Making choices impairs subsequent self-control: A limited resource account of decision making, self-regulation, and active initiative. Manuscript submitted for publication. Vohs, K. D. , & Schooler, J. W. (2008). The value of believing in free will: Encouraging a belief in determinism increases cheating. Psychological Science, 19, 49–54. Wegner, D. M. (2002). The illusion of conscious will. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Wegner, D. M. , & Wheatley, T. (1999). Apparent mental causation: Sources of the experience of will. American Psychologist, 54, 480–491. Wilson, T. D. (2002). Strangers to ourselves: Discovering the adaptive unconscious. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Volume 3—Number 1 19.

The Advantages of Study Habits on the Performance of the Students

Study habits are the ways that you study the habits that you have formed during your school years. Study habits can be good ones, or bad ones. Good study habits include being organized, keeping good notes, reading your textbook, listening in class, and working every day. Bad study habits include skipping class, not doing your work, watching TV or playing video games instead of studying, and losing your work. Study habits are the ways that you study the habits that you have formed during your school years.Study habits can be good ones, or bad ones. Good study habits include being organized, keeping good notes, reading your textbook, listening in class, and working every day. Bad study habits include skipping class, not doing your work, watching TV or playing video games instead of studying, and losing your work. It means you are not distracted by anything; you have a certain place to go where it is quiet everyday where you study and do homework. Basically it means that you are doing t he best you can to get the grades you want. It means you are not distracted by anything; you have a certain place to go where it is quiet everyday where you study and do homework.The manner with which you consistently use to study for school or college or even for next day lesson plans if you're a teacher. Study Habit of every student is one of the most important factors that affect his or her understanding regarding a certain subject. It means, if a student possesses poor study habits, she has a greater chance of getting failing grades, if compare to a student’s who has a good study habit. But â€Å"habit† as it was defined from the Introduction to Psychology, means â€Å"a learned, or fixed way of behaving to satisfy a given motive†.By this definition alone, we can say that the person involves is the one making or forming his own habit. Maybe, habits can be affected by outside interference like his environment, his attitude toward his comparisons, his teachers and the books and reading materials around him, even the place where he study and other factors which influence the concentration of a students to effectively understand his lessons, and to pass his mind to discipline himself and form to himself the proper study habits which he knows he really needed.